Language Loss, Language Survival
Few, other than San and their immediate neighbours, knew anything about San languages until their documentation commenced in the 1800s. Subsequent research has revealed that there are many different San languages spoken by different groups of San across southern Africa. These languages and dialects are so different that speakers from different San groups do not necessarily understand each other. Therefore, there is not one San language, but many different San languages spoken in southern Africa. Today, numerous San languages have become extinct owing to pressures of assimilation, extermination and dispossession. Such language and cultural loss was spurred by conflict over local resources with other people who have different lifeways and speak different languages.
“With the ||Anikhwe people most of our traditional things are no longer happening. Most of our people have been mixed with other groups for too long and are living with too many other people. If you go to their villages, you may not even find them if you do not know who they are, because they are not even speaking their language; they speak Hambukushu or Tswana, and you would think they are from those groups. ||Anikhwe are very shy of their language.”
Goitseone ||Aeka, Xakau, Botswana (quoted in le Roux & White, Voices of the San, 2010)
Drakensberg San
The San of the Drakensberg (Ukhahlamba) South Africa and the Maluti mountains of Lesotho were speakers of language varieties such as: Seroa, ǂUngkue, ||U||’e, !Ga!ne and ||Xegwi. Today these language varieties are extinct, however, their descendants can be found in areas such as Mzimkhulu (Eastern Cape), Loteni (KwaZulu-Natal) Kamberg (KwaZulu-Natal) and Lake Chrissie (Mpumalanga).
“I remember in our family when I was growing up being told we were not part of the Zulus. Then I thought, if we are not Zulus, what kind of people are we? I asked the elders. They said we grew up under the shadow of the Zulus so we could hide. They told us we were not Zulus, we are San and we are just hiding here. I’m glad we now have a chance to reveal ourselves. I would like to ask anyone who thinks they are one of the San people to come out so we can help each other.”
Richard Duma, Kamberg Valley, South Africa, 2010
Kalahari San
Auo and |Haasi were once spoken in the surrounds of the Nossob river, along the border of South Africa and Botswana, and into Namibia. Today, there are no known speakers of either language.
“They could not, because behind you was the Boer […] and the Nooi calls, ‘Husband, come and beat this maid, she is rude to me.’ That’s the reason we could not teach our children our language. We now need to see if we can teach the little ones again.”
Keis Brou, southern Kalahari, South Africa, (quoted in le Roux & White, Voices of the San, 2010).
Kalahari San
|Xam is the most extensively documented San language that now has no known speakers. Today, known descendants of |Xam speakers are the ‘Karretjie Mense’ from the Colesberg district, who have lost |Xam in favour of Afrikaans, “Hierdie Boesmantaal van ons” (This Bushman language of ours), i.e. Afrikaans. Emma Sors, Colesberg District, South Africa.
“||Ae !kau dharia ke ka kokoxui juasi kosin so oosi” (Hold your people, your language and your culture tightly together)
Tsemkgao Fanie Cwi, a Ju|’hoan speaker from Nyae Nyae, Namibia.
A member of the Duma clan who have claimed their ancestry to the Abatwa of the Drakensburg. Photo: Paul Weinberg
| Extinct San Languages | Extinct Khoe Languages |
|---|---|
| Seroa† | Eini† |
| |Haasi† | Kora† |
| |Xam† | Kwadi† |
| |’Auo † | - |
| ǂUngkue† | - |
| !Ga!ne† | - |
| ||U||’e † | - |
| ||Xegwi† | - |
† - symbol used in linguistics to refer to an extinct language
| Orthography | Description | Example with English translation | Name of language |
|---|---|---|---|
| ʘ Labial click | Place both lips together, open the mouth and simultaneously pull the tongue back in a sucking action | ʘàa (child) | !Xóõ |
| | Dental click | Place the tip of the tongue on the back of the front teeth and pull the tongue back sharply (as in the English ‘tsk-tsk’). | |am (sun) | Khwedam |
| ǂ Palatal click | Place the blade of the tongue on the hard palate and the tip of the tongue against the front teeth and pull tongue back sharply. | ǂoah (giraffe) | Ju|’hoansi |
| ! Alveolar click | Place the tip of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and pull away sharply (like the popping sound of a bottle being uncorked). | !xo (elephant) | !Xun |
| || Lateral click | Place the tip of the tongue on the roof of the mouth and release air from one side of the mouth using the tongue (like the clicking noise people make to horses). | n||aasi (gemsbok cucumber) | N|uu |
| ’ Pause within a word | When you see an apostrophe within a word, this indicates that the speaker should pause briefly. | kx’o’e (water) | Kwadi |
N|uu language workshop, conducted by African Tongue at the Kalahari Desert Festival, Andriesvale. Photos: Paul Weinberg
When a language dies, we lose an important link to a culture that can never truly be recovered again. Today, preservation efforts are being made to document and revitalise surviving San languages. It is hoped that through such efforts, future generations of speakers will be encouraged to use the languages of their forefathers, thereby protecting local identities and indigenous knowledge systems. The map below represents the location and approximate population size of the remaining San and Khoe speakers in southern Africa today.
Ju|’hoansi - Namibia
In Namibia, there have been ongoing efforts to protect Ju|’hoansi since the 1980s, especially in the Nyae Nyae conservancy area. Today there are approximately 16 000 speakers of Ju|’hoansi. Mother tongue education is provided in the Village Schools from Grade R to Grade 3, along with a complementary kindergarten program to encourage early mother tongue literacy skills.
Ju|’hoansi is also officially recognised by the Namibian government as a language for educational purposes with Ju|’hoan materials provided in accordance with the national curriculum. In the workplace, the Ju|’hoan Transcription Group (JTG) provide a translation service from Ju|’hoansi to Afrikaans or English for the purposes of developing learning materials, subtitles for film or other community related projects.
N|uu - South Africa
In South Africa, language revitalisation efforts of the N|uu language began in the 1990s after 25 speakers were discovered in the Northern Cape among the ǂKhomani people. Today, there are only 4 mother tongue speakers of N|uu remaining, however, a local school, ǂAqe ||X’oqesi (Gazing at the Stars) run by Katrina Esau (Ouma Geelmeid), brings hope for the use of the language into the future.
N|uu language workshop, conducted by African Tongue at the Kalahari Desert Festival, Andriesvale. Photos: Paul Weinberg
Three of the last speakers of N|uu. Katrina Esau (Ouma Geelmeid), Johanna Koper, Greit Seekoei, Upington, South Africa. Photo: Paul Weinberg
Naro – Botswana
In Botswana, the Naro Language Project has been running under the guidance of the Dutch Reformed Church since the 1980s. Through their efforts and in collaboration with the community, they have created a dictionary, language primers, literacy materials, magazines, Bible study booklets, technical publications as well as the Bible. Their collaboration with the Kuru Art Project has resulted in locally inspired and produced materials in the Naro language.
Tjwao – Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, the Tjwao language is spoken by approximately 20 people in the Tsholotsho District by elderly people between the ages of 60 and 90 years. In 2013 the Constitution of Zimbabwe was amended in Chapter 1, Section 6 to include Tjwao as one of the country’s officially recognised languages in an attempt to assist with the protection and preservation of the language.
Msindo Moyo, one of the last Tjwao speakers, demonstrates a
dance, Sanqinana village, Zimbabwe. Photo: Stefan Savic